Author: Mohammed W. H. AlAgha, Master’s in Public Policy, Doha Institute for Graduate Studies

Introduction

Social protection, as defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO), encompasses a comprehensive set of policies and programmes designed to reduce and prevent poverty, vulnerability, and social exclusion throughout an individual’s life cycle. It provides essential benefits against various risks, including unemployment, disability, old age, sickness, maternity, and work-related injuries, while ensuring access to fundamental healthcare and basic income security. In the Arab region, social protection is gaining increasing recognition as a fundamental human right and a cornerstone for equitable development.

This article introduces the concept of “green social protection” as a timely and necessary response to the interconnected crises of climate change, conflict, and inequality prevalent in the Arab world. It posits that sustainable energy projects are not merely environmental solutions but are, in fact, vital tools for fostering inclusive social development. Green energy initiatives, particularly those targeting vulnerable and underserved communities, can play a transformative role in building inclusive, just, and resilient social safety nets. Adopting a rights-based approach, this paper links environmental sustainability with social justice, proposing innovative pathways for the seamless integration of energy policy with social protection frameworks.

Theoretical Framework – From Energy Poverty to Green Social Protection

Energy poverty, characterized by the lack of access to modern, affordable, and reliable energy services, has profound implications for health, education, and livelihoods, particularly in vulnerable communities. It exacerbates existing inequalities, hindering socio-economic development and perpetuating cycles of poverty. The absence of adequate energy access can lead to reliance on traditional, often harmful, energy sources, contributing to indoor air pollution and associated health problems. Furthermore, it limits educational opportunities due to insufficient lighting for studying and impedes economic activities that require reliable power.

Central to addressing energy poverty is the concept of energy justice, which advocates for equitable access to energy, fair distribution of energy benefits and burdens, and inclusive decision-making processes in energy policy. When viewed through the lens of social protection frameworks, energy justice becomes an integral component of ensuring basic human rights and promoting social equity. It moves beyond mere energy access to consider the broader social, economic, and environmental impacts of energy systems on different population groups.

Integrating a human rights-based approach into climate and social policy is crucial for achieving green social protection. This approach emphasizes the obligations of states to respect, protect, and fulfil human rights in the context of climate change and social development. It recognizes that climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, making it imperative to design policies that not only mitigate environmental degradation but also safeguard and promote the rights of all individuals, especially those most at risk. Green social protection, therefore, emerges as a holistic paradigm that seeks to leverage environmental sustainability initiatives, particularly in the energy sector, to enhance social wellbeing, reduce vulnerabilities, and promote a just transition for all.

Social and Climate Vulnerabilities in the Arab Region

The Arab region stands at a critical juncture, grappling with a complex interplay of climate shocks, energy shortages, and persistent sociopolitical instability. These overlapping crises disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, exacerbating existing inequalities and hindering sustainable development efforts. The region, already characterized by water scarcity and fragile ecosystems, is experiencing increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and sandstorms. These environmental shifts, coupled with ongoing conflicts and governance challenges, create a precarious environment for millions.

One stark illustration of this vulnerability is Gaza’s protracted electricity crisis. Decades of blockade and recurrent conflicts have severely damaged infrastructure and restricted the entry of essential resources, leading to chronic power shortages. Residents often receive only a few hours of electricity per day, severely disrupting daily life. The humanitarian consequences are dire: Hospitals struggle to maintain critical services, water and sanitation systems are compromised, and the lack of reliable power impedes economic activity and educational opportunities. The constant uncertainty and hardship also take a heavy toll on mental health, with high rates of anxiety and depression reported among the population. This energy deficit underscores how the absence of a fundamental service can cascade into a multifaceted humanitarian crisis.

Further south, desertification in Sudan exemplifies the devastating impact of climate change on livelihoods and displacement. Driven by reduced rainfall, increased temperatures, and unsustainable land management practices, fertile lands are turning into barren deserts. This environmental degradation directly threatens agricultural productivity, which forms the backbone of the economy for many rural communities. The loss of arable land and traditional livelihoods forces mass displacement, pushing vulnerable populations into urban centres or across borders, often leading to increased competition for dwindling resources and exacerbating existing social tensions. The intertwining of environmental degradation and conflict creates a vicious cycle of vulnerability and instability.

In the Gulf region, energy subsidies present a different yet equally complex challenge. Historically, these subsidies have been a cornerstone of social policy, ensuring affordable energy access and acting as a de facto social safety net. However, they have also led to excessive consumption, placed significant fiscal burdens on governments, and disincentivized investments in energy efficiency and renewable sources. While reforms are underway to reduce these subsidies, their removal can disproportionately affect lower-income households who rely on them for basic needs. The challenge lies in designing reforms that are fiscally sustainable while simultaneously protecting vulnerable populations through targeted support mechanisms, ensuring a just transition away from fossil fuel dependence.

Beyond these specific examples, the broader context of the Arab region reveals pervasive vulnerabilities among key demographic groups:

• Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: The region hosts the largest number of displaced people globally, many of whom reside in informal settlements with inadequate infrastructure and limited access to basic services. Climate change acts as a significant driver of further displacement, compounding the challenges faced by these already marginalized communities.
• Women: Existing gender inequalities make women particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. They often have limited access to resources, education, and decision-making processes, which restricts their adaptive capacity. Climate-induced resource scarcity can also increase their burden of unpaid care work and expose them to heightened risks of violence and exploitation. Despite these challenges, women are increasingly recognized as crucial agents of change in climate adaptation and resilience-building efforts.
• Informal Workers: A substantial portion of the Arab workforce operates in the informal sector, lacking formal social protection, legal recognition, and safety nets. These workers, especially those in agriculture and outdoor occupations, are highly exposed to climate hazards such as extreme heat and water scarcity. Their precarious employment status and lack of social security make them highly susceptible to economic shocks and health impacts resulting from environmental degradation.

In conclusion, the Arab region’s social and climate vulnerabilities are deeply interconnected, creating a complex web of challenges that demand integrated and rights-based policy responses. Addressing these vulnerabilities requires not only climate action but also robust social protection systems that can buffer the impacts of environmental shocks and promote inclusive development for all.

Renewable Energy as a Vehicle for Social Inclusion

Sustainable energy projects, particularly those that are decentralized and community-focused, offer a powerful vehicle for social inclusion and empowerment in the Arab region. These initiatives move beyond large-scale, centralized power grids to bring energy directly to communities, fostering local ownership, economic development, and enhanced resilience.

Decentralized renewable projects, such as solar microgrids and rooftop photovoltaic systems, are proving transformative. Unlike traditional energy infrastructure, which often bypasses remote or underserved areas, these localized solutions can be deployed rapidly and efficiently, providing reliable and affordable electricity where it is most needed. Solar microgrids, for instance, can power entire villages or neighbourhoods, supporting essential services like healthcare facilities, schools, and small businesses. Rooftop photovoltaic systems empower individual households and businesses to generate their own clean energy, reducing their reliance on often unstable and expensive national grids.

These projects empower communities by giving them greater control over their energy supply. This local ownership fosters a sense of pride and responsibility, leading to better maintenance and more equitable distribution of benefits. Direct access to reliable energy improves the quality of life, enabling longer study hours for children, better preservation of food and medicine, and increased safety and security within homes and public spaces.

Furthermore, renewable energy initiatives are significant drivers of job creation and income generation. The development, installation, operation, and maintenance of solar farms, wind turbines, and microgrids create new employment opportunities, often in local communities. These jobs range from skilled technical roles to less specialized labour, providing diverse avenues for economic participation. For marginalized households, reduced energy costs free up disposable income that can be invested in education, healthcare, or small businesses, further stimulating local economies. The economic benefits extend to entrepreneurship, as reliable energy enables the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises that can process local goods, offer new services, and connect to broader markets.

Community-driven energy initiatives are at the forefront of this inclusive transition. These projects are often initiated and managed by local residents, NGOs, or cooperatives, ensuring that energy solutions are tailored to specific community needs and priorities. By involving community members in the planning and implementation phases, these initiatives build local capacity, enhance social cohesion, and ensure that the benefits of clean energy are equitably distributed. They demonstrate that renewable energy is not just about technology; it is about empowering people, fostering self-sufficiency, and building resilient communities from the ground up.

In essence, renewable energy, when approached with a focus on decentralization and community involvement, transcends its role as a climate solution to become a powerful tool for social inclusion. It addresses energy poverty, stimulates local economies, creates jobs, and empowers vulnerable populations, thereby contributing significantly to the establishment of more just and equitable societies in the Arab region.

Case Studies

To illustrate the transformative potential of integrating green energy initiatives with social protection, this section delves into specific case studies from the Arab region, highlighting how renewable energy projects are fostering social inclusion and resilience.

Gaza-Based Solar Projects Supporting Hospitals and Households

The Gaza Strip, which is enduring a severe and prolonged electricity crisis due to the blockade and conflict, has become an unlikely incubator for solar energy solutions. Faced with only a few hours of grid electricity daily, both humanitarian organizations and individual households have turned to solar power as a lifeline. International and local organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme, World Health Organization, Palestine Children’s Relief Fund, and Qatar Red Crescent Society, have installed solar systems in critical healthcare facilities such as Nasser Hospital, Al-Quds Hospital, and Al-Shifa Hospital. These solar installations ensure the continuous operation of essential medical equipment, from operating-room equipment to incubators, directly saving lives and mitigating the devastating impact of power outages on patient care. Beyond electricity, some projects also integrate solar-powered water filtration units, providing safe drinking water for patients and staff.^{[1][2][3][4][5]}

At the household level, the adoption of rooftop solar panels has been a remarkable, largely autonomous response to the unreliable grid. Gaza now boasts one of the highest densities of rooftop solar systems globally, as families invest in these solutions to power their homes, charge devices, and maintain a semblance of normalcy. Initiatives by the World Bank (through the Gaza Solar Revolving Fund) and the Gaza Electricity Distribution Company have supported this trend, offering financing and technical assistance for small-scale solar installations. These projects not only provide a more reliable and cost-effective energy source but also empower households, reduce their vulnerability to external shocks, and improve overall quality of life by ensuring access to basic amenities like lighting and refrigeration.^[6][7][8][9]

Morocco’s Noor Solar Project and Its Links to Rural Development

Morocco’s Noor Ouarzazate Solar Power Station stands as a monumental example of large-scale renewable energy development. While primarily conceived to boost national energy independence and reduce carbon emissions, the project has also had significant, albeit sometimes debated, links to rural development. Located in a historically underserved region, the project has contributed to Morocco’s impressive rural electrification rates, bringing electricity to remote villages through grid extensions and solar home systems. This access to electricity has opened doors for improved education, healthcare, and economic activities in previously isolated communities.^[10][11][12]

Beyond direct energy provision, the project has created some local jobs, diversifying income sources for community members involved in the construction, operation, and maintenance phases. Furthermore, the development of the Noor complex has been accompanied by broader infrastructure improvements, including road networks, which enhance connectivity and access to markets for rural populations. While challenges remain, particularly concerning water usage in an arid region and ensuring equitable benefits for all local communities, the Noor project demonstrates how large-scale green energy initiatives, when integrated with broader development agendas, can contribute to significant improvements in rural livelihoods and infrastructure.^[13][14][15]

Civil Society-Led Initiatives Promoting Solar Energy in Informal Settlements

Across the Arab region and globally, civil society organizations (CSOs) are at the forefront of bringing decentralized solar energy solutions to informal settlements and marginalized urban areas. These initiatives address critical energy access gaps where formal grid infrastructure is often absent or inadequate. CSOs implement diverse approaches, from distributing affordable solar home systems for lighting and phone charging to establishing community-based microgrids that provide shared power for multiple households or public spaces.^[16]

These projects empower residents by providing reliable and clean energy, reducing reliance on expensive and hazardous alternatives like kerosene. Beyond direct energy access, they generate significant social co-benefits: Improved health outcomes due to reduced indoor air pollution, enhanced educational opportunities as children can study after dark, and increased safety and security through solar-powered public lighting. Many CSOs also focus on capacity building, training local residents in the installation and maintenance of solar technologies and even in related entrepreneurship, thereby creating local job opportunities and fostering self-sufficiency. Examples from other regions, such as the successful rooftop solar projects in Mumbai’s slums or community-led initiatives in Brazilian favelas, offer valuable lessons for similar contexts in the Arab world, demonstrating how grassroots efforts can leverage solar energy to build more resilient, equitable, and sustainable urban communities.^{[17][18][19][20][21]}

Policy Pathways and Recommendations

Achieving a just and inclusive energy transition in the Arab region necessitates a fundamental shift towards integrated policy design, in which ministries of social affairs, energy, and planning collaborate seamlessly. The traditional siloed approach to policymaking often leads to fragmented efforts, missed opportunities, and unintended negative consequences for vulnerable populations. A truly transformative approach requires a coordinated strategy that recognizes the deep interdependencies between energy access, social wellbeing, and sustainable development.

Encourage Integrated Policy Design

Integrated policy design means fostering robust inter-ministerial coordination and cross-sectoral planning. This involves establishing formal mechanisms for dialogue and joint decision-making among ministries responsible for social protection, energy, finance, environment, and urban and rural planning. For instance, energy ministries should work closely with social affairs ministries to identify vulnerable communities most affected by energy poverty and design targeted interventions. Similarly, planning ministries can ensure that new renewable energy infrastructure projects are strategically located to maximize social benefits, such as job creation and improved access to essential services for local populations.

Effective coordination can lead to policies that:

• Align objectives: Ensure that energy policies contribute to social protection goals, and vice versa. For example, promoting decentralized renewable energy can simultaneously address energy poverty and create local livelihoods.
• Optimize resource allocation: Prevent duplication of efforts and ensure that investments in energy infrastructure or social programmes yield synergistic benefits.
• Anticipate and mitigate risks: Proactively identify potential social impacts of energy reforms (e.g., subsidy removal) and design compensatory measures or social safety nets to protect vulnerable groups.
• Leverage expertise: Combine technical expertise from energy sectors with social development insights to create more holistic and effective interventions.

While some Arab countries have initiated inter-ministerial coordination efforts, strengthening these mechanisms is crucial. This includes clear mandates, adequate funding, and regular reporting to ensure accountability and progress. The goal is to move beyond ad hoc collaborations to institutionalized frameworks that embed social justice and equity considerations into every stage of energy policy formulation and implementation.

Propose Subsidy Reforms that Support Renewable Access for the Poor

Energy subsidies have historically been a prevalent feature in many Arab countries and were intended to provide affordable energy to citizens and act as a form of social protection. However, these subsidies often come with significant drawbacks: They are fiscally burdensome, encourage overconsumption, disincentivize energy efficiency, and often disproportionately benefit wealthier segments of society. Reforming these subsidies is crucial for fiscal sustainability and for fostering a transition to renewable energy, but it must be done in a socially responsible manner that protects vulnerable populations.

Policy recommendations for effective and equitable subsidy reform include:

• Phased Removal with Targeted Compensation: Instead of abrupt removal, subsidies should be phased out gradually, accompanied by robust and well-communicated compensatory measures. This can include direct cash transfers to low-income households, lifeline tariffs for essential energy consumption, or vouchers for energy-efficient appliances. These targeted mechanisms ensure that the poor, who are most affected by price increases, are adequately protected and can maintain their access to essential energy services.
• Reinvestment of Savings into Social Programmes and Renewable Energy: The fiscal savings generated from subsidy reforms should be strategically reinvested. A significant portion should be directed towards strengthening social safety nets, expanding access to healthcare and education, and funding job creation initiatives. Crucially, these savings should also be channelled into developing renewable energy infrastructure, particularly decentralized solutions that can directly benefit underserved communities. This reinvestment creates a virtuous cycle in which economic efficiency gains from reform fuel social development and accelerate the green transition.
• Promoting Renewable Energy Access for the Poor: Alongside compensation, policies should actively promote and facilitate the adoption of renewable energy solutions by low-income households. This can involve:
  • Subsidized Installation Programmes: Providing financial incentives or direct subsidies for the installation of rooftop solar panels or connections to community microgrids in low-income areas.
  • Microfinance and Loan Schemes: Developing accessible microfinance options and favourable loan schemes to enable vulnerable households and small businesses to invest in renewable energy technologies.
  • Capacity Building and Awareness: Investing in programmes that educate communities about the benefits of renewable energy and provide training for its installation and maintenance, fostering local ownership and technical skills.

By carefully designing and implementing subsidy reforms that prioritize social equity and channel resources towards sustainable and inclusive energy solutions, Arab governments can achieve fiscal stability, accelerate their energy transition, and build more resilient and just societies. This approach transforms a potentially regressive policy change into an opportunity for progressive social and environmental gains.

Foster Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) with Clear Social Objectives

Public-private partnerships (PPPs) offer a powerful mechanism to mobilize private capital, expertise, and innovation for renewable energy projects, particularly those with significant social benefits. While PPPs are often utilized for large-scale infrastructure, their potential for driving inclusive energy transitions lies in their ability to incorporate explicit social objectives into project design and implementation. This means moving beyond purely financial returns to prioritize outcomes such as job creation, local economic development, and improved access to energy for underserved communities.

To ensure PPPs contribute to social inclusion, policymakers should:

• Integrate Social Impact Metrics: Project agreements should include clear, measurable social impact indicators alongside financial and environmental metrics. This could involve targets for local employment, training programmes for community members, or specific provisions for energy access in marginalized areas. Regular monitoring and evaluation against these social objectives are crucial.
• Incentivize Local Content and Participation: Policies can encourage private partners to source materials and labour locally, fostering domestic industries and creating jobs within the communities where projects are located. These policies can also promote local ownership models, such as community energy cooperatives, where feasible.
• De-risk Investments for Socially Oriented Projects: Governments and development finance institutions can play a critical role in de-risking investments in renewable energy projects that target vulnerable populations or informal settlements. This can involve providing guarantees, concessional financing, or technical assistance to make these projects more attractive to private investors.
• Facilitate Capacity Building: Support for local governments and civil society organizations to effectively engage in PPP processes is essential. This ensures that community needs and priorities are adequately represented and that local stakeholders can actively participate in project planning and oversight.

In the Arab region, PPPs have been instrumental in developing large-scale renewable energy projects. The next step is to ensure that these partnerships are intentionally designed to maximize social co-benefits, particularly for those most affected by energy poverty and climate vulnerability. By embedding social objectives into the core of PPP frameworks, governments can leverage private-sector dynamism to build a more equitable and sustainable energy future.

Leverage International Cooperation and Financing Mechanisms

International cooperation and robust financing mechanisms are indispensable for accelerating a just energy transition and strengthening social protection systems in the Arab region. Many Arab countries, particularly those with limited fiscal space, rely on external support to fund ambitious renewable energy projects and expand social safety nets. This necessitates strategic engagement with international partners and a diversified approach to financing.

Key avenues for leveraging international cooperation and financing include:

• Multilateral Development Banks and Development Finance Institutions: Institutions like the World Bank, African Development Bank, and Islamic Development Bank are crucial sources of concessional loans, grants, and technical assistance. They can play a pivotal role in de-risking renewable energy investments, particularly for projects with high social impact, and in supporting the design and implementation of effective social protection programmes. Their involvement often brings not only financial resources but also valuable expertise and adherence to international best practices.
• Climate Finance: The Arab region is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, yet it receives a disproportionately low share of global climate finance. There is a critical need to enhance access to climate funds (for example, the Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Fund) for projects that simultaneously address climate change mitigation and adaptation, as well as social resilience. This includes funding for renewable energy infrastructure, climate-smart agriculture, and early warning systems that protect vulnerable communities.
• Impact Investing and Green Bonds: Attracting private impact investors who seek both financial returns and measurable social and environmental impact is a growing opportunity. Governments can create enabling environments for impact investing through clear regulatory frameworks, transparent project pipelines, and incentives for socially responsible investments in renewable energy and related sectors. The issuance of green bonds can also mobilize capital specifically for environmentally friendly projects, with a portion potentially earmarked for social co-benefits.
• Bilateral Cooperation: Partnerships with countries that have advanced renewable energy technologies and experience in social protection reforms can facilitate knowledge transfer, capacity building, and joint project development. This can involve sharing best practices in policy design, technology deployment, and community engagement.
• UN Agencies and International Organizations: Organizations like UNDP, UNICEF, ILO, and ESCWA provide technical assistance, policy advice, and programme implementation support. They can help countries integrate social protection into energy transition strategies, conduct vulnerability assessments, and build institutional capacities for effective programme delivery.

By strategically engaging with these diverse international actors and financing instruments, Arab countries can unlock the necessary resources and expertise to build resilient, equitable, and sustainable societies, ensuring that the benefits of the energy transition reach all segments of the population, especially the most vulnerable.

Conclusion

The intersection of sustainable energy transitions and robust social protection systems presents a critical pathway for fostering equitable and resilient development in the Arab region. As this article has demonstrated, the region faces a dual challenge: Mitigating the impacts of climate change and transitioning to cleaner energy sources, while simultaneously addressing deep-seated social vulnerabilities and ensuring that no one is left behind in this transformative process. The traditional reliance on fossil fuel subsidies, while intended to provide social safety nets, has often exacerbated environmental challenges and failed to adequately protect the most marginalized populations.

However, the opportunities for synergy are immense. By embracing integrated policy design, reforming energy subsidies with targeted social protection measures, fostering public-private partnerships with clear social objectives, and leveraging international cooperation, Arab countries can unlock a virtuous cycle of sustainable development. Decentralized renewable energy projects, exemplified by initiatives in Gaza and Morocco, not only provide essential energy access but also empower communities, create local jobs, and build resilience from the ground up. Civil society-led efforts in informal settlements further underscore the potential of community-driven solutions to address energy poverty and enhance social wellbeing.

Moving forward, a commitment to a just energy transition in the Arab region requires:

1. Holistic Governance: Breaking down silos between ministries and fostering inter-sectoral collaboration to ensure that energy policies are socially inclusive and social protection programmes are climate-sensitive.
2. Equitable Financing: Reallocating resources from regressive fossil fuel subsidies to targeted social safety nets and investments in pro-poor renewable energy solutions.
3. Empowering Local Actors: Supporting community-led initiatives and local enterprises in the renewable energy sector, recognizing their vital role in delivering energy access and fostering social inclusion.
4. Strengthened Partnerships: Actively engaging with international partners, multilateral institutions, and private investors to mobilize the necessary financial and technical resources, ensuring that these partnerships prioritize social and environmental outcomes.

Ultimately, the journey towards a sustainable and equitable future in the Arab region is not merely about shifting energy sources; it is about reimagining the social contract, building resilient communities, and ensuring that the benefits of progress are shared by all. By strategically linking energy transitions with social protection, the Arab world can pave the way for a future that is both environmentally sustainable and profoundly just.

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^[1] United Nations Development Programme, “Renewable Energy for All: Photovoltaic Cells for Gaza Hospitals”, available at https://www.undp.org/papp/projects/renewable-energy-all-photo-voltaic-cells-gaza-hospitals

^[2] World Health Organization, “Powering Health: WHO Brings Solar Energy to the Health Sector in Gaza”, available at https://www.emro.who.int/opt/news/powering-health-who-brings-solar-energy-to-the-health-sector-in-gaza.html

^[3] Palestine Children’s Relief Fund, “PCRF Provides Solar Power System for Hospital in Gaza”, available at https://www.pcrf.net/news/item-1562847450.html

^[4] Qatar Red Crescent Society, “QRCS Provides Gaza’s Al-Quds Hospital with Solar Power”, 15 August 2023, available at https://www.qrcs.org.qa/en/News/Pages/QRCS-provides-Gaza%E2%80%99s-Al-Quds-Hospital-with-solar-power.aspx?NewsId=N+gD4aUzF18=

^[5] Al Jazeera, “Israeli Forces Target Solar Panels at Gaza’s al-Shifa Hospital”, 6 November 2023, available at https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/11/6/israeli-forces-target-solar-panels-at-gazas-al-shifa-hospital

^[6] Will Todman, Joseph S. Bermudez Jr. and Jennifer Jun, “Gaza’s Solar Power in Wartime”, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 21 November 2023, available at https://www.csis.org/analysis/gazas-solar-power-wartime

^[7] Hala J. El-Khozondar and Fady El-batta, “Solar Energy Implementation at the Household Level: Gaza Strip Case Study”, Energy, Sustainability and Society, Vol.12, Article 17, 28 April 2022, available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-022-00343-7

^[8] World Bank, “Improving Energy Security in Gaza Through Solar Energy”, 10 October 2018, available at https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/10/10/improving-energy-security-in-gaza-through-solar-energy

^[9] Eric Tegler, “Electricity Trickles from Vulnerable Solar Panels on Gaza Roofs”, Forbes, 22 November 2023, available at https://www.forbes.com/sites/erictegler/2023/11/22/electricity-trickles-from-vulnerable-solar-panels-on-gaza-roofs/

^[10] World Bank, “Morocco: Noor Solar Power Project” (P131256), available at https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P131256

^[11] World Resources Institute, “Morocco: Ensuring a Large-Scale Renewable Installation Benefits Local Communities”, available at https://www.wri.org/snapshots/morocco-ensuring-large-scale-renewable-installation-benefits-local-communities

^[12] International Energy Agency, “Universal Electrification in Morocco”, updated 2 August 2023, available at https://www.iea.org/policies/17741-universal-electrification-in-morocco

^[13] Zakia Salime, “Life in the Vicinity of Morocco’s Noor Solar Energy Project”, Middle East Research and Information Project, 21 April 2021, available at https://www.merip.org/2021/04/life-in-the-vicinity-of-moroccos-noor-solar-energy-project-2/

^[14] El Mehdi Boufaddi, “European Investments in Morocco: Renewable Energy at the Expense of Human Rights?”, Global Voices, 30 October 2024, available at https://globalvoices.org/2024/10/30/european-investments-in-morocco-renewable-energy-at-the-expense-of-human-rights/

^[15] Youssef Stitou, Socio-Economic Benefits of Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex, Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy, 5 February 2019, available at https://www.esmap.org/sites/default/files/events-files/5_20190205_Socio%20economic%20benefits%20of%20Noor%20Ouarzazate%20solar%20complex.pdf

^[16] Damian Conway, Blake Robinson, Patience Mudimu, Tawanda Chitekwe, Kweku Koranteng and Mark Swilling, “Exploring Hybrid Models for Universal Access to Basic Solar Energy Services in Informal Settlements: Case Studies from South Africa and Zimbabwe”, Energy Research & Social Science, Vol.56, October 2019, available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.05.012

^[17] Noah Schermbrucker, “There’s a Way to Sort Out Lighting in Informal Settlements”, Good Things Guy, 23 June 2023, available at https://www.goodthingsguy.com/theres-a-way-to-sort-out-lights-in-informal-settlements/

^[18] Alex Densmore, “Rolling Out Solar Power for Informal Settlements”, GroundUp, 26 September 2022, available at https://groundup.org.za/article/rolling-out-solar-power-for-informal-settlements/

^[19] Next City, “How Organizers in Rio’s Favelas Are Harnessing Solar Energy”, available at https://nextcity.org/urbanist-news/how-organizers-in-rios-favelas-are-harnessing-solar-energy

^[20] Earth5R, “Community Solar Project by Earth5R”, available at https://earth5r.org/community-solar-project-by-earth5r/

^[21] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Pollinate Energy: Training the Local Community to Distribute and Install Clean Lighting Systems in the Slums of Bangalore”, 2013, available at https://unfccc.int/climate-action/momentum-for-change/urban-poor/pollinate-energy